Peptide Encyclopedia

GLP-1 Receptor Agonist

A long-acting GLP-1 analog distinguished by its C18 fatty diacid chain, enabling albumin binding and a half-life of ~7 days. One of the most clinically studied peptides in modern metabolic research.

GIP / GLP-1 Dual Agonist

A 39-amino acid synthetic peptide that simultaneously activates GIP and GLP-1 receptors. Demonstrated greater weight loss than any approved single-agonist in clinical trials.

GLP-1 / GIP / Glucagon Triple Agonist

A novel triple receptor agonist targeting GLP-1, GIP, and glucagon receptors simultaneously — the first of its kind in human Phase 2 trials. Early data suggests it may surpass dual agonists.

Body Protection Compound 157

A 15-amino acid cytoprotective peptide derived from human gastric juice. Widely researched for wound healing, tendon repair, and GI protection across hundreds of animal studies.

Thymosin Beta-4 Synthetic Fragment

A synthetic fragment of Thymosin Beta-4, a ubiquitous actin-sequestering protein. Research focuses on promoting tissue repair, reducing inflammation, and supporting angiogenesis in cardiac and skeletal muscle models.

GHRH Analog (No DAC)

A tetrasubstituted GHRH analog with four amino acid substitutions that increase receptor affinity and proteolytic resistance. Most commonly studied in combination with Ipamorelin for synergistic GH pulse amplification.

Selective GH Secretagogue

A pentapeptide ghrelin mimetic renowned for its exceptional receptor selectivity. Unlike other GHSRs, Ipamorelin does not significantly raise cortisol, ACTH, or prolactin — making it a clean research tool for isolated GH axis studies.

Mitochondrial Open Reading Frame of the 12S rRNA-c

A 16-amino acid peptide encoded within the mitochondrial genome — a newly discovered class of signaling molecule. Regulates metabolic homeostasis via AMPK and FOXO1 pathways.

Copper Peptide Complex (Glycyl-L-Histidyl-L-Lysine:Cu²⁺)

A naturally occurring tripeptide-copper complex found in human plasma, saliva, and urine. Plasma levels decline sharply with age. Extensively studied for collagen induction, skin remodeling, and gene expression regulation.

Bremelanotide — Melanocortin Receptor Agonist

A cyclic heptapeptide melanocortin receptor agonist and active metabolite of Melanotan II. Unlike peripheral vasodilators, PT-141 acts centrally via the CNS to modulate arousal and food intake pathways.

Epithalamin — Tetrapeptide Telomerase Activator

A synthetic tetrapeptide derived from the pineal gland peptide Epithalamin. Studied extensively by Vladimir Khavinson for telomerase activation, circadian regulation, and life extension in animal models.

GHRH Analog — Visceral Fat Reduction

A 44-amino acid GHRH analog with a trans-3-hexenoic acid N-terminal modification. FDA-approved for HIV-associated lipodystrophy. The most clinically validated GHRH analog for visceral adipose tissue reduction.

Anxiolytic Nootropic Heptapeptide

A synthetic analog of the endogenous tetrapeptide Tuftsin. Developed by the Russian Institute of Molecular Genetics. Studied for anxiolytic, nootropic, and immunomodulatory effects without sedation or dependence.

ACTH(4-7) Pro-Gly-Pro Analog

A synthetic analog of a fragment of ACTH that lacks hormonal activity but retains potent neuroprotective and cognitive-enhancing properties. Widely used in Russian clinical settings for stroke, memory, and attention disorders.

Growth Hormone Releasing Hexapeptide

A potent six-amino acid growth hormone secretagogue. Among the strongest GHRPs studied, but notable for also elevating cortisol and prolactin — making it useful for studying GH axis effects with concurrent stress-hormone activation.

Delta Sleep-Inducing Peptide

A neuropeptide originally isolated from rabbit cerebrospinal fluid during slow-wave sleep. Studied for sleep regulation, stress buffering, pain modulation, and antioxidant effects across decades of European research.

Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide-2

A second-generation synthetic hexapeptide GHRP and potent GHSR-1a agonist. More selective than GHRP-6 with less ghrelin-like appetite stimulation, making it widely used in GH axis research protocols.

Mitochondrial-Derived Cytoprotective Peptide

A 21-amino acid mitochondria-encoded peptide discovered through its ability to rescue neurons from Alzheimer's-related death. Like MOTS-c, it belongs to the emerging class of mitochondrial-derived peptides with systemic metabolic and cytoprotective effects.

Szeto-Schiller Peptide 31 — Mitochondria-Targeting Antioxidant

A cell-permeable tetrapeptide that selectively concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane by binding cardiolipin. Protects mitochondrial cristae structure and reduces oxidative stress without scavenging ROS directly.

Cyclic Melanocortin Analog

A potent cyclic analog of α-MSH that activates melanocortin receptors broadly. Studied for UV-independent melanogenesis, appetite suppression, and as the parent compound of PT-141 (Bremelanotide).

Thymalfasin — Immune Modulating Peptide

A 28-amino acid thymic peptide that modulates T-cell function and cytokine balance. Studied clinically for chronic hepatitis B, sepsis, and vaccine response augmentation for over 30 years.

Modified hGH Fragment 177-191 (Lipolytic)

A modified C-terminal fragment of human growth hormone (amino acids 177-191) with a tyrosine substitution. Studied primarily for its lipolytic (fat-burning) effects without the growth-promoting activity of full-length hGH.

Long Arginine-3 Insulin-like Growth Factor-1

A modified recombinant IGF-1 with an arginine substitution and 13-residue N-terminal extension that reduces binding to IGF-binding proteins, increasing bioavailability. The FDA-approved drug mecasermin is the unmodified reference compound.

GHRH (1-29) Analog

A synthetic 29-amino-acid fragment of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH 1-29), FDA-approved as a diagnostic agent for GH deficiency. Stimulates the pituitary to release endogenous growth hormone.

Growth Hormone Releasing Peptide-6

A synthetic ghrelin-mimetic hexapeptide that potently stimulates GH release through the ghrelin receptor. One of the first growth hormone secretagogues developed, with over 25 years of research history.

Kisspeptin-10 (KP-10) — Reproductive Neuropeptide

The active 10-amino-acid core of kisspeptin, a master regulator of reproductive hormone release. Stimulates GnRH secretion and has been studied in human trials for fertility and reproductive disorders.

Oxytocin — Neuropeptide Hormone

A nine-amino-acid neuropeptide hormone best known for childbirth and lactation, now studied extensively for social bonding, stress regulation, wound healing, and metabolic effects via intranasal delivery.

Cathelicidin LL-37 — Host Defense Peptide

The only human cathelicidin host-defense peptide. Kills bacteria, modulates inflammation, promotes wound healing, and is being studied for infections, sepsis, and tissue repair.

Cibinetide — Innate Repair Receptor Agonist

A non-erythropoietic peptide derived from erythropoietin (EPO) that activates the innate repair receptor. Studied in Phase 2 clinical trials for neuropathy, inflammation, and tissue protection without EPO’s red-cell effects.

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide

A 28-amino-acid neuropeptide with potent anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory actions. Being studied for autoimmune diseases, type 2 diabetes, and antiviral applications.

Long-Acting Amylin & Calcitonin Receptor Agonist

A lipidated amylin analogue engineered to resist the amyloid fibrillation that plagues native human amylin. Works on satiety pathways entirely separate from GLP-1 — which is why it stacks so effectively with semaglutide.

Cagrilintide 2.4 mg + Semaglutide 2.4 mg Fixed-Dose Combination

The first amylin + GLP-1 fixed-dose combination to reach phase 3. Two satiety systems in one weekly injection, and the closest any injectable has come to bariatric-surgery-range weight loss.

Glucagon / GLP-1 Receptor Dual Agonist

A 29-amino-acid dual agonist that pairs GLP-1 appetite suppression with glucagon-driven energy expenditure and hepatic fat oxidation. Its liver-fat data is the standout: up to 63% reduction.

GLP-1 / Glucagon Dual Agonist (Oxyntomodulin Analogue)

An oxyntomodulin-based dual agonist and the first GLP-1/glucagon co-agonist approved anywhere in the world — cleared in China for weight management in 2025.

Daily GLP-1 Receptor Agonist

The GLP-1 that proved the class. A C16 palmitoyl chain gave native GLP-1 a 13-hour half-life instead of two minutes — and produced the first cardiovascular outcome data for the family.

MC4R-Selective Melanocortin Agonist

A cyclic octapeptide that restores signalling in a broken melanocortin pathway. The only obesity drug that treats a specific genetic lesion rather than appetite in general.

Peptide YY 3-36 — Y2 Receptor Agonist

The gut's post-meal "stop eating" signal, released from L-cells in proportion to calories consumed. Rises sharply after gastric bypass — one reason the surgery works.

GLP-2 Analogue — Intestinotrophic Peptide

A single amino acid substitution turns GLP-2 from a 7-minute hormone into a drug that regrows intestinal villi. The only approved peptide that makes the gut physically bigger.

AT-1001 — Tight Junction Regulator / Zonulin Antagonist

An eight-amino-acid peptide that acts locally in the gut lumen and is essentially not absorbed. Reached phase 3 for celiac disease — and failed at interim analysis.

Lys-Pro-Val — C-Terminal α-MSH Tripeptide

Three amino acids clipped from the tail of α-MSH — small enough to ride the PepT1 transporter directly into intestinal cells, where it shuts down NF-κB signalling.

PDA — BPC-157 Arginate Salt

The same fifteen amino acids as BPC-157, paired with an arginine counterion instead of acetate. Marketed as a successor compound; chemically, it is a salt form.

Myostatin & Activin Binding Protein

A glycoprotein that binds and neutralises myostatin — the brake on muscle growth. Knock out the brake in animals and muscle mass increases dramatically.

PEGylated Mechano Growth Factor (IGF-1Ec Splice Variant)

The splice variant of IGF-1 that muscle produces after mechanical damage. Its job is to wake up satellite cells — PEGylation extends a half-life measured in minutes.

Thymic Polypeptide Complex — Khavinson Bioregulator

A Soviet-era thymic extract, not a single molecule. The centrepiece of the Khavinson bioregulator programme — and of a 6-to-12-year follow-up study whose mortality claims have never been replicated.

GSH — Endogenous Antioxidant Tripeptide

The body's master antioxidant and the most abundant intracellular thiol. An unusual gamma peptide bond makes it resistant to normal peptidases — and its depletion tracks almost every disease of ageing.

FOXO4 D-Retro-Inverso Senolytic Peptide

A mirror-image peptide that pries p53 away from FOXO4 inside senescent cells — removing the block that keeps those cells alive instead of apoptotic.

PTH (1-34) — Anabolic Bone Peptide

The first drug that builds bone rather than merely slowing its loss — and it works only because it is given as a daily pulse. Continuous exposure to the same peptide destroys bone instead.

Acetyl Hexapeptide-8 — SNAP-25 Mimetic

A six-residue mimic of the SNAP-25 N-terminus, designed to interfere with the same vesicle-fusion machinery botulinum toxin cleaves. The mechanism is real; the question is whether enough of it reaches the muscle.

Angiotensin IV Analogue — HGF/c-Met Potentiator

An angiotensin IV derivative reported to be orders of magnitude more potent than BDNF at driving synaptogenesis. Its mechanism runs through c-Met — the same receptor that drives many cancers.

Porcine Brain-Derived Neuropeptide Preparation

A low-molecular-weight peptide fraction from porcine brain tissue, used across Europe and Asia for stroke and dementia for decades. Decades of trials, and the Cochrane verdict is still not favourable.

Afamelanotide Acetate

Afamelanotide is a melanocortin receptor 1 agonist indicated to increase pain-free light exposure in adult patients with erythropoietic protoporphyria (EPP).

Endogenous human peptide

Thymosin is an endogenous human peptide that plays a role in cytoskeleton organization by binding to and sequestering actin monomers, thereby inhibiting actin polymerization.

Endogenous human peptide

Gastrin is an endogenous human peptide that stimulates the stomach mucosa to produce and secrete hydrochloric acid and the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes.

(Ala 8)Human Neuropeptide Y

Human Neuropeptide Y is an investigational peptide that acts as a ligand for neuropeptide Y receptors.

Gonadorelin Acetate

Gonadorelin is a synthetic decapeptide that functions as a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor agonist. It is used in medicine to stimulate the release of gonadotropins.

Endogenous human peptide

Bradykinin is an endogenous human peptide involved in various physiological processes, including blood coagulation and inflammation.

Endothelin receptor ET-A antagonist

BQ-123 is a cyclic pentapeptide and a selective antagonist of the endothelin A (ETA) receptor.

Cholecystokinin A receptor agonist

Sincalide, also known as Kinevac, is an FDA-approved cholecystokinin A receptor agonist used in diagnostic imaging and to stimulate pancreatic secretion.

Cholecystokinin B receptor antagonist

Netazepide is a cholecystokinin B receptor antagonist that has been investigated for its potential in treating various gastrointestinal conditions.

Integrin alpha-IIb/beta-3 inhibitor

Eptifibatide is an integrin alpha-IIb/beta-3 inhibitor used to decrease the rate of death or myocardial infarction in patients with acute coronary syndrome and those undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist

Ganirelix is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor antagonist used to inhibit premature luteinizing hormone (LH) surges in women undergoing controlled ovarian hyperstimulation.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist

Abarelix is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist approved by the FDA for certain prostate cancer cases.

Research compound

Acyline is a synthetic peptide and a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist, currently under investigation.

Endogenous human peptide

Thymopentin is an endogenous human peptide composed of five amino acid residues. It is currently investigational and studied for its role in immune modulation.

Oxytocin receptor antagonist

Atosiban is an oxytocin receptor antagonist used to delay preterm labor. It is FDA-approved and acts by blocking the effects of oxytocin.

Research peptide

Penetratin is a cell-penetrating peptide, also known as Transportan or Antennapedia Peptide, currently in Phase 1 clinical trials.

Research peptide

Eledoisin is a research peptide and a member of the tachykinin peptide family, currently in Phase 2 development.

Vasopressin Tannate

Vasopressin is an FDA-approved peptide hormone and V1a, V1b, and V2 receptor agonist used to increase blood pressure in adults with vasodilatory shock.

Desmopressin Acetate

Desmopressin is a synthetic analog of vasopressin that acts as a vasopressin receptor agonist. It is FDA-approved for central diabetes insipidus and primary nocturnal enuresis.

Research compound

Exenatide is a synthetic peptide that acts as a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist, primarily studied for its role in metabolic regulation.

Endogenous human peptide

Substance P, also known as Neurokinin P, is an endogenous human peptide and a member of the tachykinin family.

Integrin alpha-V/beta-3 antagonist

Cilengitide is a cyclic RGD peptide and an integrin alpha-V/beta-3 and alpha-V/beta-5 antagonist, studied for various cancers.

Research compound

Bombesin is a tetradecapeptide that acts as a bombesin receptor agonist, influencing various physiological processes.

Endogenous human peptide

Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP) is a neuropeptide that activates VIP receptor 1 (VPR1) and VIP receptor 2 (VPR2), which are G protein-coupled receptors.

Research compound

Ghrelin is a peptide hormone that acts as a ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR). It is involved in regulating appetite, metabolism, and growth hormone release.

Research peptide

Octreotide is a somatostatin analog indicated for reducing growth hormone and IGF-1 levels in acromegaly, and for managing severe diarrhea and flushing associated with metastatic carcinoid tumors and VIPomas.

Prolow-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 binding agent

Ang1005, also known as paclitaxel trevatide, is a prolow-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1 binding agent and tubulin inhibitor.

Cetrorelix Acetate

Cetrorelix is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor antagonist used to inhibit premature LH surges in women undergoing controlled ovarian stimulation.

Triptorelin Pamoate

Triptorelin is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor agonist indicated for the treatment of advanced prostate cancer.

Nafarelin Acetate

Nafarelin is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor agonist used in the management of endometriosis and central precocious puberty.

Vasopressin receptor agonist

Lypressin is a synthetic peptide and a vasopressin receptor agonist, used in the treatment of diabetes insipidus.

Cholecystokinin A receptor agonist

Ceruletide Diethylamine is a cholecystokinin A receptor agonist that was FDA approved in 1982.

Leuprolide Acetate

Leuprolide is a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor agonist used in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer and other hormone-sensitive conditions.

Research peptide

Ceruletide is a synthetic peptide and cholecystokinin (CCK) agonist, approved by the FDA for diagnostic and therapeutic uses.

Erythropoietin receptor agonist

Epoetin Alfa is an erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) that acts as an erythropoietin receptor agonist, primarily used to treat anemia.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Lispro, also known as Lyumjev, is a rapid-acting human insulin analog that acts as an insulin receptor agonist.

Platelet-derived growth factor receptor agonist

Becaplermin is a recombinant human platelet-derived growth factor, functioning as a platelet-derived growth factor receptor agonist. It is FDA-approved for the treatment of lower extremity diabetic neuropathic ulcers.

Growth hormone receptor agonist

Somatrem, also known as Protropin, is a growth hormone receptor agonist that was FDA approved in 1985.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Glargine is a long-acting human insulin analog and an insulin receptor agonist, FDA-approved to improve glycemic control in patients with type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Susp Isophane Semisynthetic Purified Human is an insulin receptor agonist that is FDA approved.

Vasopressin V2 receptor agonist

Vasopressin Tannate is an FDA-approved vasopressin V2 receptor agonist, also acting on V1a and V1b receptors.

Melanocortin receptor 2 agonist

Seractide Acetate is a synthetic peptide that acts as a melanocortin receptor 2 agonist.

Thrombin inhibitor

Lepirudin is a recombinant hirudin derivative that functions as a direct thrombin inhibitor. It is FDA-approved for anticoagulation.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Susp Isophane Beef is an insulin receptor agonist used to manage various forms of diabetes mellitus.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Aspart is a rapid-acting human insulin analog that functions as an insulin receptor agonist, primarily used to improve glycemic control in patients with diabetes mellitus.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Aspart Protamine Recombinant is an insulin receptor agonist, FDA-approved for managing diabetes mellitus.

Tubulin stabiliser

Davunetide, also known as NAP peptide, is a tubulin stabiliser studied for its potential in neurological disorders.

Heat-stable enterotoxin receptor agonist

Plecanatide, also known as Trulance, is a guanylate cyclase-C agonist approved for treating chronic idiopathic constipation (CIC) and irritable bowel syndrome with constipation (IBS-C) in adults.

Unknown

Thymalfasin, also known as Thymosin alpha 1, is a synthetic peptide that has been investigated for its immunomodulatory properties.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Detemir, also known as Levemir, is a long-acting human insulin analog and an insulin receptor agonist used to improve glycemic control in patients with diabetes mellitus.

Research peptide

Elcatonin is a synthetic calcitonin analog derived from eel calcitonin, currently in Phase 2 clinical trials for parathyroid diseases.

Calcitonin gene-related peptide type 1 receptor agonist

Davalintide is a calcitonin gene-related peptide type 1 receptor agonist and an amylin receptor AMY1, CALCR/RAMP1 agonist.

Bradykinin B2 receptor agonist

Labradimil is a synthetic bradykinin B2 receptor agonist that has been investigated for its ability to increase the permeability of the blood-brain barrier.

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor agonist

Taltirelin is a synthetic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) analog that acts as an agonist for the thyrotropin-releasing hormone receptor.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist

Albiglutide is a glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Leptin receptor agonist

Metreleptin is a leptin receptor agonist and a leptin analog, FDA-approved as an adjunct to diet for treating complications of leptin deficiency in patients with congenital or acquired generalized lipodystrophy.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist

Taspoglutide is a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist that was investigated for the treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Degludec is a long-acting human insulin analog and an insulin receptor agonist, FDA-approved for improving glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

TNF-alpha inhibitor

Onercept is a tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) inhibitor that has been investigated for its role in inflammatory conditions.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist

Dulaglutide, marketed as TRULICITY, is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist used to improve glycemic control and reduce cardiovascular risk in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Parathyroid hormone receptor agonist

Parathyroid Hormone is an 84-residue peptide that acts as a parathyroid hormone receptor agonist. It is FDA approved and marketed as Bestmade Natural Products BM67.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 agonist

Trafermin is an FDA-approved fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 agonist. It is studied for its role in tissue repair and regeneration.

Follicle stimulating hormone receptor agonist

Corifollitropin alfa is a follicle stimulating hormone receptor agonist used in controlled ovarian stimulation for assisted reproduction.

TNF-alpha inhibitor

Lenercept is a TNF-alpha inhibitor that has been investigated for its anti-inflammatory properties.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Tregopil is an oral recombinant human insulin analog that acts as an insulin receptor agonist, currently in Phase 2 clinical trials for diabetes mellitus.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor antagonist

Ozarelix is a synthetic peptide and a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) receptor antagonist.

Vascular endothelial growth factor A inhibitor

Conbercept is a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor, primarily studied for ophthalmic conditions.

Glucagon-like peptide 2 receptor agonist

Elsiglutide is a glucagon-like peptide 2 receptor agonist currently in Phase 2 clinical trials for the treatment of diarrhea.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist

Lixisenatide, also known as Adlyxin, is a glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonist used to improve glycemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Coagulation factor IX exogenous protein

Nonacog Beta Pegol is a coagulation factor IX exogenous protein approved for the treatment of Hemophilia B.

GDNF family receptor alpha-1 agonist

Liatermin is a GDNF family receptor alpha-1 agonist currently in Phase 2 clinical trials.

Luteinizing hormone/Choriogonadotropin receptor agonist

Menotropins, also known as Menopur, is a gonadotropin and a luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor agonist and follicle stimulating hormone receptor agonist.

Insulin, Protamine Zinc

Insulin Zinc is an insulin receptor agonist that is FDA-approved for medical use.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Zinc, Extended is an insulin receptor agonist currently in Phase 2 clinical trials.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Zinc, Prompt is an insulin receptor agonist currently in Phase 2 clinical trials.

Interferon alpha/beta receptor agonist

Interferon Alfa-2a is an interferon alpha/beta receptor agonist used in the treatment of various neoplasms and viral infections.

Cell membrane disrupting agent

Pexiganan Acetate is a cell membrane disrupting agent studied for its antimicrobial properties.

Vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 and 2 (Flt-1 and KDR) agonist

Telbermin is a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 1 and 2 (Flt-1 and KDR) agonist currently in Phase 2 clinical trials.

Insulin receptor agonist

Insulin Peglispro is a long-acting insulin analog that acts as an insulin receptor agonist, developed for the treatment of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus.